I am currently in a multicultural psychology course. One of the things we discussed in class last week was the variety of developmental models for racial identity. William E. Cross, Jr. developed the first black identity model in the sixties, and nearly all of the models that have been developed since then use his model as a guide.
While feminists have built models of feminine identity development (and here, just for starters), to my knowledge there has been no such model for masculine identity (we have Freudian, role theory, and social relations models, but nothing very comprehensive).
One might object to this idea on the premise that most of Western psychology is a model based on men, and you would have a point. But there really is not a healthy model for how men can develop to become mature individuals - devoted specifically to masculine identity. I hope to present some ideas in that direction in these two posts.
Here is a summary of Cross's Nigrescence model (1), and its subsequent revision.
Cross’s (1971; Hall, Freedle, & Cross, 1972) original nigrescence theory, articulated in the 1970s, described the development of African American identity from a pro-White assimilationist position to a pro-Black internalized stance. Since its conception, Cross’s nigrescence model has been revised (Cross, 1991, 1995) and expanded (see Cross & Vandiver, 2001; Vandiver, Cross, Worrell, & Fhagen-Smith, 2002; Vandiver & Worrell, 2001). The expanded nigrescence theory (NT-E) differs from the original and revised theories in several ways. Perhaps most important is the change from a developmental-stage theory to one that focuses on attitudes or social identities (Cross & Vandiver, 2001; Vandiver, 2001; Vandiver et al., 2002; Worrell, Cross, & Vandiver, 2001), which focus on recurring psychological themes in the social history of Black people (Cross et al., 1998). The theory highlights how Black attitudes are socialized across the life span (Cross & Fhagen-Smith, 2001) and conceptualizes the multiple ways that Black identities are transacted or enacted in everyday life (Cross, Smith, & Payne, 2002; Cross & Strauss, 1998). As such, racial identity attitudes are not developmental in the traditional sense—that is, an invariant sequence of qualitatively different stages—although they are influenced and changed by events and contexts across the life span.Here is a very basic summary of the model from Wikipedia:
NT-E also maintains the distinction between personal identity and reference-group orientation (Cross, 1991). In this conceptualization, it is possible to divide self-concept into two domains: a general personality, or personal identity domain, and a group identity, social identity, or reference group orientation domain (Cross, 1985; Spencer, 1982). NT-E focuses on reference-group orientation because it views each variant of Black identity as a form of group identity (Cross & Vandiver, 2001) rather than as a variable representing general personality characteristics.
NT-E groups racial identity attitudes into three thematic categories: preencounter, immersion-emersion, and internalization (Cross & Vandiver, 2001; Worrell et al., 2001). Preencounter themes refer to identities that accord low or even negative salience to race and Black culture. Consequently, in the face of a racial epiphany or encounter, these attitudes may be the focus of identity change. Preencounter attitudes include assimilation, which reflects low race salience, as well as miseducation and self-hatred, both forms of negative race salience.
Immersion-emersion themes indicate a state of limbo representing identity volatility and flux. The immersion-emersion attitudes—anti-White and intense Black involvement—connote intense pro-Black or anti-White fixations (immersing), or it can reflect a state of emersing when a person is moving from myopic attitudes to more nuanced views of the Black and White community. Internalization themes indicate a sense of reconciliation with being Black in a multicultural world, and all identities falling within this category accord moderate to high importance to race and Black cultural issues. Afrocentric, bicultural, and multicultural identities are the attitudes under internalization, and are symbolic of the types of identity attitudes where positive feelings about being Black do not preclude acknowledging other salient identities in self or others.
These multiple identity attitudes underscore a central theme of NT-E—that there is no one type of Black identity; rather, there are multiple Black identity attitudes (Cross & Vandiver, 2001), and individuals can manifest differing levels of the various attitudes at the same time, although one attitude or a particular theme (e.g., preencounter) may be more salient. The Cross Racial Identity Scale (CRIS; Vandiver, Cross, Fhagen-Smith, Worrell, Swim, & Caldwell, 2000; Worrell, Vandiver, & Cross, 2004) is a six-factor scale based on NT-E. Racial identity attitudes measured on the CRIS include preencounter assimilation, preencounter miseducation, preencounter self-hatred, immersion-emersion anti-White, internalization Afrocentric, and internalization multiculturalist inclusive (Vandiver & Worrell, 2001; Vandiver et al., 2002).
Various models have been created for other ethnic groups. But one of the more interesting adaptations comes in the models of white identity development - mostly because one would not think that the dominant culture would need to worry about identity. However, the models of Janet Helms and Rita Hardiman seek to create models of healthy, non-racist white identity which, if you have done any work in this realm, is harder than it might sound.Cross developed a 5 phase developmental theory of acquisition of Black identification. He called this theory Nigrescence, which is translated as: “the process of becoming Black." The five stages progress as follows:
- Pre-encounter
- Encounter
- Immersion
- Emersion
- Internalization
The first stage refers to the time in one’s life when he/she are unaware of his/her race or racial implications.
The second stage refers to the first occurrence of racial awareness. This stage takes place earlier in life among racial minorities than for the racial majority or the advantaged group (in terms of the definition of racism: the “superior” group). This is often the moment that a child remembers as the first time he/she was treated differently because of the color of his/her skin.
The third stage is a time when a person (often in response to racial encounter) takes on all the identifying elements of his/her race. One becomes very much involved in being a member of his/her group and embracing all the behaviors, characteristics and features that are associated with being a member of that race. From a social stand point, one will spend time with those in his/her own race to the exclusion of members of other races.
The fourth stage is the counterpart to the third stage. In the fourth stage one comes out of the absolute immersion and comes to find different behaviors, characteristics and features that they may want to take on from another race. Socially one begins to become more comfortable with and value relationships with members of other races.
The final stage is the reaching of a balance. The balance involves the summation of choices and experiences one has throughout his/her identification process. A successful attainment of this process and the arrival at this final stage could be described as a level of comfort with one’s own race as well as the race of those around them.
Throughout one’s life one may revisit different stages and repeat steps of this process and reformulate their racial identity and opinions. Repeating stages is not a regression but often a part of greater process of integrating new information and reevaluating ideas from a more mature standpoint.
Of the two models, the Helms model has been tested and verified more extensively, but I like the Hardiman model for its simpler identification of the stages and struggles of creating a healthy white racial identity.
The following is a long passage from my textbook (2) that summarizes the Hardiman model, but I want to post this whole model so that readers can get a sense of the complexity and challenges of the process.
The Hardiman White Racial Identity Development ModelThe Helms model is slightly different - it has six stages, divided into two stages [emphasis added]:
One of the earliest integrative attempts at formulating a White racial identity development model is that of Rita Hardiman (1982). Intrigued with why certain White individuals exhibit a much more nonracist identity than do other White Americans, Hardiman studied the autobiographies of individuals who had attained a high level of racial consciousness. This led her to identify five White developmental stages: (1) naïveté—lack of social consciousness, (2) acceptance, (3) resistance, (4) redefinition, and (5) internalization.
1. The naïveté stage (lack of social consciousness) is characteristic of early childhood, when we are born into this world innocent, open, and unaware of racism and the importance of race. Curiosity and spontaneity in relating to race and racial differences tend to be the norm. A young White child who has almost no personal contact with African Americans, for example, may see a Black man in a supermarket and loudly comment on the darkness of his skin. Other than the embarrassment and apprehensions of adults around the child, there is little discomfort associated with this behavior for the youngster. In general, awareness and the meaning of race, racial differences, bias, and prejudice are either absent or minimal. Such an orientation becomes less characteristic of the child as the socialization process progresses. The negative reactions of parents, relatives, friends, and peers toward issues of race, however, begin to convey mixed signals to the child. This is reinforced by the educational system and mass media, which instill racial biases in the child and propel him or her into the acceptance stage.
2. The acceptance stage is marked by a conscious belief in the democratic ideal—that everyone has an equal opportunity to succeed in a free society and that those who fail must bear the responsibility for their failure. White Euro-Americans become the social reference group, and the socialization process consistently instills messages of White superiority and 266 Identity Development in Multicultural Counseling and Therapy minority inferiority into the child. The underemployment, unemployment, and undereducation of marginalized groups in our society are seen as support that non-White groups are lesser than Whites. Because everyone has an equal opportunity to succeed, the lack of success of minority groups is seen as evidence of some negative personal or group characteristic (low intelligence, inadequate motivation, or biological/cultural deficits). Victim blaming is strong as the existence of oppression, discrimination, and racism is denied. Hardiman believes that while the naïveté stage is brief in duration, the acceptance stage can last a lifetime.
3. Over time, the individual begins to challenge assumptions of White superiority and the denial of racism and discrimination. Moving from the acceptance stage to the resistance stage can prove to be a painful, conflicting, and uncomfortable transition. The White person’s denial system begins to crumble because of a monumental event or a series of events that not only challenge but also shatter the individual’s denial system. A White person may, for example, make friends with a minority coworker and discover that the images he or she has of “these
people” are untrue. They may have witnessed clear incidents of unfair discrimination toward persons of color and may now begin to question assumptions regarding racial inferiority. In any case, the racial realities of life in the United States can no longer be denied. The change from one stage to another might take considerable time, but once completed, the person becomes conscious of being White, is aware that he or she harbors racist attitudes, and begins to see the pervasiveness of oppression in our society. Feelings of anger, pain, hurt, rage, and frustration are present. In many cases, the White person may develop a negative reaction toward his or her own group or culture. While they may romanticize people of color, they cannot interact confidently with them because they fear that they will make racist mistakes. This discomfort is best exemplified in a passage by Sara Winter (1977, p. 1):
We avoid Black people because their presence brings painful questions to mind. Is it OK to talk about watermelons or mention “black coffee”? Should we use Black slang and tell racial jokes? How about talking about our experiences in Harlem, or mentioning our Black lovers? Should we conceal the fact that our mother still employs a Black cleaning lady? . . . We’re embarrassedly aware of trying to do our best but to “act natural” at the same time. No wonder we’re more comfortable in all-White situations where these dilemmas don’t arise.
According to Hardiman (1982), the discomfort in realizing that one is White and that one’s group has engaged in oppression of racial/ethnic minorities may propel the person into the next stage.
4. Asking the painful question of who one is in relation to one’s racial heritage, honestly confronting one’s biases and prejudices, and accepting responsibility for one’s Whiteness are the culminating marks of the redefinition stage. New ways of defining one’s social group and one’s membership in that group become important. The intense soul searching is most evident in Winter’s personal journey as she writes,
In this sense we Whites are the victims of racism. Our victimization is different from that of Blacks, but it is real. We have been programmed into the oppressor roles we play, without our informed consent in the process. Our unawareness is part of the programming: None of us could tolerate the oppressor position, if we lived with a day-to-day emotional awareness of the pain inflicted on other humans through the instrument of our behavior. . . . We Whites benefit in concrete ways, year in and year out, from the present racial arrangements. All my life in White neighborhoods, White schools, White jobs and dealing with White police (to name only a few), I have experienced advantages that are systematically not available to Black people. It does not make sense for me to blame myself for the advantages that have come my way by virtue of my Whiteness. But absolving myself from guilt does not imply forgetting about racial injustice or taking it lightly (as my guilt pushes me to do). (Winter, 1977, p. 2)
There is realization that Whiteness has been defined in opposition to people of color—namely, by standards of White supremacy. By being able to step out of this racist paradigm and redefine what her Whiteness meant to her, Winter is able to add meaning to developing a nonracist identity. The extremes of good/bad or positive/negative attachments to “White” and “people of color” begin to become more realistic. The person no longer denies being White, honestly confronts one’s racism, understands the concept of White privilege, and feels increased comfort in relating to persons of color.
5. The internalization stage is the result of forming a new social and personal identity. With the greater comfort in understanding oneself and the development of a nonracist White identity comes a commitment to social action as well. The individual accepts responsibility for effecting personal and social change without always relying on persons of color to lead the way. As Winter explains,
To end racism, Whites have to pay attention to it and continue to pay attention. Since avoidance is such a basic dynamic of racism, paying attention will not happen naturally. We Whites must learn how to hold racism realities in our attention. We must learn to take responsibility for this process ourselves, without waiting for Blacks’ actions to remind us that the problem exists, and without depending on Black people to reassure us and forgive us for our racist sins. In my 268 Identity Development in Multicultural Counseling and Therapy experience, the process is painful but it is a relief to shed the fears, stereotypes, immobilizing guilt we didn’t want in the first place. (1977, p. 2)
The racist-free identity, however, must be nurtured, validated, and supported in order to be sustained in a hostile environment. Such an individual is constantly bombarded by attempts to be resocialized into the oppressive society.
There are several potential limitations to the Hardiman (1982) model: (1) The select and limited sample that she uses to derive the stages and enumerate the characteristics makes potential generalization suspect; (2) the autobiographies of White Americans are not truly representative, and their experiences with racism may be bound by the era of the times; (3) the stages are tied to existing social identity development theories, and the model proposes a naïveté stage that for all practical purposes exists only in children ages 3 to 4 years (it appears tangential in her model and might better be conceptualized as part of the acceptance stage of socialization); and (4) there have been no direct empirical or other postmodern methods of exploration concerning the model to date. Despite these cautions and potential limitations, Hardiman has contributed greatly to our understanding of White identity development by focusing attention on racism as a central force in the socialization of White Americans. (p. 266-269)
[D]eveloping a healthy White identity requires movement through two phases: (1) abandonment of racism and (2) defining a nonracist White identity. Six specific racial identity statuses are distributed equally in the two phases: contact, disintegration, reintegration, pseudoindependence, immersion/emersion, and autonomy. (p. 269)I want to combine the simpler stages of Hardiman and with the two-stage aspect of Helms to create a preliminary model of masculine identity development.
Stay tuned for Part Two of this project.
1 Worrell, FC, Vandiver, BJ, Schaefer, BA, Cross Jr., WE & Fhagen-Smith, PE. (2006) Generalizing Nigrescence Profiles: Cluster Analyses of Cross Racial Identity Scale (CRIS) Scores in Three Independent Samples. The Counseling Psychologist. Vol. 34 No. 4, July 2006 519-547. DOI: 10.1177/0011000005278281
2 Sue & Sue (2008). Counseling the Culturally Diverse: Theory and Practice (5th Ed.) Wiley & Sons: New York.
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Thu, Feb 18, 2010
The other day I sent out a call for feedback for men everywhere (Stay tuned…). My request was for one sentence from anyone and everyone. Interesting that several women completely disregarded the “one sentence” rule and just went for it.
Here is one poignant example from my friend Nomali who wrote to us men exquisitely. She came up with her own introduction to it. I have not edited a thing and have received her permission to post it. I was deeply inspired upon reading her note and feel as though it may serve you. Thank you Nomali!
Notice yourself as you read this. Are you skeptical? Do you allow her words to penetrate you? Do you contract because of you are afraid to let her in? Does the spiritual tone sound too much for you? Or are you grateful for a woman that shares her vulnerability with you? What would it feel like for a woman to actually speak to you in this manner?
If you are a man hungry for more in intimacy and relationship, let this be a love letter beckoning you to show up and go deeper.
Painting My Lover: Men – Women – Me – You – Who?
by Nomali Perera
Crazy-ass long mad thing I suddenly found myself writing after I saw a posting by Jayson Gaddis of “Revolutionary Man” (What Is Your Constructive Feedback For MEN? – http://tinyurl.com/yh46lyj). This is waaaaay too long for what Jayson Gaddis is looking for. I mostly just found myself writing more about myself than men and so, this is just my note. And please know that this is MY letter. I am not speaking for other women. I am also not directing this at any one man. And sometimes I am guilty of what I complain about. I know it and am honest about it. Why did I really have all this gushing out of me? I have no idea. Maybe just because I am a woman. And sometimes, I just shamelessly gush.
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Dear You, My Man,
You are Beloved. You are God. To my tender and yet strong feminine heart, you are, whether you like it or not, a powerful path–sometimes the only path–to finding myself utterly exposed and surrendered to God. Help me do that. To touch God so fully is to surrender to my every joy, fear and shame. I cannot do this alone. I, by nature, yearn to reach God through communion, through you, with you.
To touch God so fully means I have to let myself die – die completely to my story, open to and embrace fully my shadow, both disturbingly dark, as well as brightly golden. This is the most scariest thing I need to do in my life, and I know that you can help me. If you are willing to do the same, YOU will become my rock. Own and claim your Highest masculine essence and expose your FULL self to me. I am strong. I am a big girl. I can handle your shadow…both disturbingly dark, as well as brightly golden. This is the most priceless gift you can give to me, to life. I am just as much under pressure as you are to “show up.” Please love me, guide me, see me, open me, receive me and compassionately challenge me in all my brilliance and flaws to get that much closer to God – to You. You are One. With you, WE can be One.
As a woman, I appreciate your strength and courage when you go to “do the work” at wonderful Mens’ Groups. I can see such change in you. I can see how you are guided and lovingly challenged to BE your Highest Self. I admire men who are willing to put themselves through the lion’s den of learning and growing. Let me share some tangible and more subtle changes in you that I notice and appreciate, and, well, things that I don’t really like too much, or downright despise.
I love it when you walk so upright and confident. I have noticed this in men who join good Mens’ Groups. They seem to inhabit their bodies much better. You are so handsome when you have a strong back. A strong back is, to me, a sign of an open heart. Trungpa Rinpoche said that too…
I love it when you take care of your body by eating well and working-out as is appropriate for you. I love it when you KNOW and FEEL your body. That lets me know that you will KNOW and FEEL my body.
I love it when you look me straight in my eyes, unafraid to look and be seen.
I love the “little things” you do for me like picking up flowers, a silly magazine or a Hallmark card…whatever YOU think I will enjoy. I love this because it lets me get a little glimpse of the sweet and crazy ways in which you might be seeing me. I also really like it when you ask me what might I like.
I love the clarity you bring. Its OK that sometimes it isn’t there yet. But if you are aware of whatever IS there–confusion, sadness, tension, aggression or simple joy–you’re already a step ahead.
I love it when you see the chaos that I am yet not get angry or shame me. I promise to do the same for you.
I love it when you take a little time to clean up, shave and dress well. You don’t need expensive clothes, but when you take the time to be presentable, it makes me feel you care about how you are seen and that you are mindful. Just like how you look at sexy, beautiful women and tell them how gorgeous they look, or how good they smell, remember that I like that in you too. Please don’t be shy about looking and smelling hot! Own and adorn your beautiful body with handsome clothes and perfumes and lotions and man-bags (if you need one). You too are God’s temple.
I love it when you look into my eyes when you are with me. I love the sparkle in your naughty eyes. I love it that you can be gentlemanly but also not too prissy or monk-ish when it comes to letting me know what you desire, admire and adore – and what you cannot stand!
I really don’t like it if you are not present even for one moment when you are making love to me. When we make love, remember that it is the most vulnerable place I can go to: to let you into my body, my heart, my soul, my Spirit so intimately. Please respect this sacredness and be present. But please don’t let this request make you afraid. Trust the moment and trust me. I will let you know gently if I feel you drifting away. Will you promise not to think of that as me criticizing you?
As much as I assume that Men’s Groups guide men into being strong men, sometimes, I also notice this showing up as arrogance. I don’t like that. I own it that I may be projecting – but sometimes, maybe I’m not. The teaching to be tough and rock-solid are all good. But don’t let it get too much into your head, because then you look so self-consumed with the “good work you are doing” that you look and feel inaccessible and unapproachable. It would be sad if all that good work does not also help you practice humility.
Please don’t ever hide me, lie to me or lie about me. If you are afraid to be seen in public with me, if you are too embarrassed or shy to proudly walk holding hands with me and introduce me to your friends, just leave me. And don’t come back. As a woman, I yearn to be seen, not hidden in just your/our private world. When you hide me from your world which I long to proudly be a part of, you can hurt my self-esteem in pretty brutal ways. And it will take a long time before I can feel worthy again. If I am losing my self in a lie, I admit that it is my fault and I cannot and won’t blame you. However, if you have a truth you need to live without me, help me live mine by not delaying yours. You are NOT responsible for my life. But i am sincerely asking for your help.
Truly, you can and need to trust me that I can take care of myself. If you are just not that into me and if I am just not good enough for you, or there is someone else, just let me know. Don’t worry about hurting me. Hurt me. Be a man. I will get over it and get on much quicker and with much more joy if you are honest.
Please take care of your surroundings. Really, I mean REALLY, why are some men such slobs? Your room, your table, your car, your office is so dirty and messy that I don’t want to come anywhere near that. Your messy outer space is very telling of you inner space. Do Mens’ Groups ever bring this up?
I love it that you are doing your work, and maybe you might see me being lazy or not doing my own development. However frustrating this might make you feel, please don’t belittle me. I am probably doing the best I can no matter how little or clumsy it might seem. Just continue to embody to me YOUR Highest Self or you can also choose to leave. I will learn in my own time and capacity.
By the way, I hate to say this, but I really don’t like it if you have bad breath and if you don’t tell me if I have bad breath. We are human and human bodies can smell…so its only natural. But please can we find a way to tactfully let each other know if we don’t like how we smell (or look or feel)?
I love it that we are quirky unique beings. And we each have our own ways of kissing. Kissing is a big thing. I love kissing! And yet, if the kissing just isn’t going right, can we somehow find a way to bring that up? Tenderly, without hurting feelings?
I may at times look ready and willing and wild and playful. And yet, that does not mean that I am not shy. Please don’t get frustrated with me if I am needing more time. Please don’t take it personally if I am not opening to you as quickly as you might like. Please understand that I maybe very self conscious of the extra fold around my waist, the slight lopsidedness of my right breast, my crooked nose that I hate so much, the darkness of my skin that sometimes brings up all sorts of cultural anxieties, and how ugly I sometimes think I am. Its just how I have grown up seeing myself and you need to be patient with my neuroses.
Patiently and softly invite me to love my flesh and my nudity, my blush and my dignity.
Unabashedly and unashamedly bring on your strong and genuine masculinity to me and to all areas of your life, while also transcending and including your very own feminine sensitivity. When you do so, you leave me crazy hot and bothered. I need not say no more. And help me bring out my own masculinity too. I need to foster structure, direction and focus in my life. And sometimes when you find me in that place, please don’t hurt me by calling me “too masculine!”
It is a lot of hard work to always have to “radiate divine light!” And I cannot always do that. Sometimes you might see me as too closed. But don’t be too quick to make that judgment. There are three fingers pointing right back at you. Maybe you are closed too.
When there is a “charge,” let’s just talk about it, OK? It just doesn’t serve anyone or anything to let it suddenly be an elephant in the room and six months have gone by! Let’s just roll up our sleeves and get our hands dirty. Bring on the muddy madness. We can work it out and in; I promise you.
You are a gorgeous, gorgeous embodiment of Passion, Spirit, Emptiness and God. Thank you for letting me feel your heart wide open and broken. I trust the strength in your arms with which you will move a mountain for me. I trust the vastness of your Being that will witness me fully as I dance around you like a wild woman and cry like a little girl. I trust the depth of your soul that is willing to challenge lovingly my shallowness. And because I trust you like that, I will fall to my knees before you and worship you. When you see me looking up to you and into your eyes, know that I am profoundly proud to be your Devadasi, the Servant of my God, my You.
Always-Already,Nomali